- Air Quality

Drinking Water Quality and Quantity
Resource Use
-- Healthy Natural Environment --

What are the Most Important Goals?

• Informed residents
• Visionary leaders
• Engaged institutions
• Accessible services
• Good health
• Integrated infrastructure
• Valued ecosystems

What Can We Do?

Individuals:
• Reduce and conserve energy use at home.
• Purchase low-emission and fuel-efficient vehicles.
• Purchase and use green energy where available.
• Support renewable energy initiatives.
• Encourage decisionmakers to support energy efficiency and non-polluting energy projects.

Decision-makers:
• Support emission-reduction regulations for autos, trucks, and
power plants.
• Support energy-efficiency regulations.
• Promote the implementation and production of nonpolluting renewable energy sources.
• Promote the purchase of low-emission and fuel-efficient vehicles where appropriate, especially for public vehicles.

First, any time there is inefficiency in the form of pollution or waste, it is uneconomic and therefore more costly. Second, increases in efficiency not only will reduce global warming gasses such as CO2 but also will save money and improve the economy.
- Paul Hawken
The Ecology of Commerce

With problems like climate change, global poverty, economic and social insecurity visible in the forecasts of many of the world's leading authorities, it's time to get serious about idealism.
- Alan AtKisson

What is this Indicator?

The Air Quality Indicator tracks the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection (DEP) Air Quality Index (AQI) for Cape Cod as measured at its Truro station. In Massachusetts, the AQI is based on measurements of ground-level ozone, one of the six criteria pollutants listed in the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). Ozone is formed by reactions between other pollutants during periods of
intense sunlight and is detrimental to health. This index transforms the ambient concentrations that are measured in parts per billion (ppb) at a monitoring station to a scale from 0 to 500. The AQI index was introduced in 1976 by the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and has been adopted nationally and internationally to most effectively communicate with the public in easily understood language regarding the level of air pollutants and related health effects.

The AQI scale is normalized so that an index value of 100 is associated with the numerical level of the short-term (8-hour) NAAQS ozone standard, which is 84 ppb. The index level of 50 is associated with a level at which it is appropriate to begin public health guidance with cautionary language for sensitive individuals.¹ The level of health guidance for this AQI as reported in Cape news media is in accordance with the following EPA scale. The Massachusetts DEP makes a daily forecast for the indicator and also reports the previous day’s level as calculated from local measured data.

Why is this Indicator Important?

Increased levels of air pollution have implications for the health of residents, visitors and the environment, as well as on Cape Cod's economic condition. This Air Quality Indicator is largely a function of emissions from motor vehicles and power plants. Although power plants in the midwest states contribute to pollution on the Cape, concentrations are greatest close to large regional plants such as Brayton Point and Mirant Canal for primary pollutants (within 5 miles) and peak further downwind for secondary pollutants (approximately 20 miles).²

Ozone is unique among the criteria pollutants of the NAAQS in that it is formed by reactions between other pollutants, called precursors, in the presence of intense sunlight during the summer. The time needed to complete these reactions results in the buildup of ozone concentrations downwind from the source of the precursors, which are nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons from motor vehicles and power plants.³ Ozone formation occurs primarily from May through September, the so-called "ozone season" as designated by the EPA.

Ground-level ozone is a health problem. There is no apparent threshold below which health effects do not occur, thus exposures below the numerical levels indicated by the AQI may be of concern for some extremely sensitive individuals.⁴Ozone irritates mucous membranes, causing reduced lung function, nasal congestion, throat irritation and reduced resistance to infection. When the indicator is above 50, ozone may cause respiratory problems in some children and adults engaged in outdoor activities. These effects are of particular concern for those with existing lung problems. People with respiratory diseases such as asthma, and other sensitive individuals, should consider limiting outdoor exercise and strenuous activities during the afternoon and early evening hours, when ozone levels are the highest.⁵ When this index is above 100, children and people with asthma (the groups most at risk) may experience respiratory symptoms (such as coughing or pain when taking a deep breath) and reduced lung function, which can cause some breathing discomfort. When the AQI is above 150, anyone may experience these respiratory effects.⁶ Conditions above 200 are much more severe but have not occurred during the period examined.

Massachusetts has been, and continues to be, in a non-attainment status for the EPA ozone exceedance levels, that is levels above an AQI of 100. In fact, the highest levels of ozone have been recorded at the Truro monitoring station in the Cape Cod National Seashore, which has been the focus of ozone exceedances in eastern Massachusetts over the last several seasons.⁷ This status triggers the implementation of power plant emission-control requirements for nitrogen oxides in Massachusetts after a three-year period of non-attainment.⁸ The purpose of requiring power plant emission controls on nitrogen oxides is an attempt to achieve NAAQS ozone attainment by limiting the number of ozone exceedances. Other NAAQS criteria pollutants, particularly sulfur dioxide and fine particulate matter, have been identified as causing premature death, chronic bronchitis, cardiovascular hospital admissions, emergency room visits, and asthma attacks.⁹Unfortunately, sulfur dioxide is not monitored on the Cape and cannot be reported as an air quality indicator
at this time.

Analysis of Data

The AQI data presented in the accompanying Figures 1 and 2 for the 2001 and 2002 ozone seasons are from the DEP monitoring station in the Cape Cod National Seashore at Truro. As a comparable point of reference, the same AQI is shown from the city of Boston.¹⁰ The
data indicate that air quality is considerably worse on the Cape than in the city of Boston. We note that for those two years the number of unhealthy days (exceedance days) with an AQI over 100 on the Cape totaled 17, compared to Boston's five days. The average Cape AQI was 45 and Boston's was 31. In this respect, the Cape's air quality is 50% worse than Boston's.

This seemingly incongruous phenomenon may be partially explained by the fact that the Cape has a unique microclimate with a dual sea breeze circulation. A new three-dimensional meteorological model with a grid resolution of 0.8 miles shows how this may happen when rising warm air currents carry regional power plant pollution out to sea early in the day, then bring it back on land later in the afternoon¹¹. During warm summer days, power plant energy production peaks to accommodate extensive air conditioning. For example, the yearly average capacity factor (production level) at the Canal plant is 58%¹², but during a hot summer day it may be at or near 100%. This, in turn, roughly doubles its pollution emissions. Increased summer traffic, with large vehicles idling in stalled or slow-moving backups,
exacerbates this problem.

Two years of data are not sufficient to establish a trend in this indicator on the Cape due to wide fluctuations in yearly weather patterns. However, data for the entire state of Massachusetts during a nine-year period (Figure 3)¹³ indicate a worsening condition overall.¹⁴ Note: an exceedance day is any day a monitor station reports an ozone concentration equal to or greater than 85 ppb for 8 hours (an AQI of 100). Even if several stations report exceedances on any one day, that data is counted as one exceedance day for the entire state and is reported as one day in Figure 3.

Hopefully, the new stringent emission regulations for power plants in Massachusetts¹⁵will
help abate this air quality indicator. In the case of the Canal plant, for example, enforcement of the new regulations will reduce nitrogen oxide emissions by a factor of two and the sulfur dioxide emissions by a factor of three. Unfortunately, Mirant and other power plant owners have appealed these regulations and are seeking court rulings. These legal appeals will have to play out in the courts. However, support of the Massachusetts DEP by local decision-makers would be helpful.

In addition to the new emission regulations, the Massachusetts Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) requires the use of less-polluting and non-polluting renewable fuels
in the near future.¹⁶Beginning this year, 1% of all electric sales in the state must come from eligible fuels that include landfill gas, biomass (wood or organic waste), solar, wind, and ocean tidal power. The minimum renewable use will increase to 4% in 2009 and then continue to increase at a rate of 1% a year.

Figure 1. May through September 2001

Figure 2. May through September 2002

We do not inherit the land from our ancestors; we borrow it from our children.- Native American Proverb

Increased levels of
air pollution have implications for the health of residents, visitors and the environment, as well as on Cape Cod's economic condition.

What Connections Does This Indicator Have?

Air quality is inextricably connected to the combustion of fossil fuels in power plants and motor vehicles. While coal reserves may be sufficient for 300 years with all their attendant environmental impacts, worldwide consumption of fuel oil at the current rate is unsustainable. In fact, the United States reached its
peak crude oil production in 1970¹⁷ and the world oil production is expected to peak within the first decade of this century. Since the Canal power plant is primarily oil-fired and Brayton Point is partially oil-fired, there will be increasing pressure on the cost of their electrical energy. Similarly, the increasing cost of gasoline and aviation fuel will impact tourism. Hence, the Air Quality Indicator has synergies with indicators for energy, transportation, health care, tourism and water quality.

Economic
When air quality is poor, Cape Cod residents and businesses pay in many ways. We pay the cost of medical care to treat respiratory ailments like asthma, bronchitis and cardiovascular problems resulting from poor air quality. As the costs for health insurance creep up, residents find it more difficult to find and afford health care; in one case a provider even dropped seniors altogether.¹⁸If our residents are unable to afford to pay higher health insurance costs, the cost burden of the region must increase to provide public health care. Retirees will be less likely to retire here. Lost work due to restricted-activity days impact both employees and employers. If shoppers and tourists are warned to stay indoors because of poor air quality, businesses lose. And if the Cape develops a reputation for poor air quality, our tourist industry may decline. Already, a headline news article on a National Park Service study, recently released, finds the Cape Cod National Seashore among the worst parks in the nation for ozone and sulfate air quality indicators.¹⁹

Environmental
Poor air quality impacts the environment of the Cape in many ways. Ozone is toxic to vegetation, inhibiting growth and causing leaf damage contributing to forest degradation. The precursor of ozone, the oxides of nitrogen, combine with sulfur dioxide to form acidic aerosols that fall to the earth in rain, fog and snow. Acid deposition causes acidification of our surface waters, jeopardizing the aquatic ecosystem by harming fish. In addition, atmospheric nitrogen deposition contributes to the eutrophication of surface waters, especially sensitive coastal embayments, by supplementing septic loading. The formation of acidic particles in the atmosphere results in haze and reduced visibility along our scenic ocean vistas. Acid deposition is also responsible for the corrosion and deterioration of our buildings, ancient cemetery monuments, and other historic structures through its effects on stone, metals and paints.²⁰

Social
Poor air quality can force people to stay indoors, reducing social interaction and recreational activities for residents and visitors alike. Detrimental health effects take an emotional toll on family members in addition to creating economic stress. Premature deaths from respiratory illness or cardiovascular problems can be devastating to families.